Bruger:Luka1184/Sandkasse
Skabelon:Short description Skabelon:Infobox proto-language
Urverdenssproget eller proto-verdenssproget (også kaldet urhumansk, urmenneskelig eller ursapiens) er den hypotetiske direkte genetiske forgænger for alle sprog talt i verden.[1] Det ville ikke være forfader til tegnsprog.[2]
The concept is speculative and not amenable to analysis in historical linguistics. It presupposes a monogenetic origin of language, i.e. the derivation of all natural languages from a single origin, presumably at some time in the Middle Paleolithic period. As the predecessor of all extant languages spoken by modern humans (Homo sapiens), Proto-Human language as hypothesised would not necessarily be ancestral to any hypothetical Neanderthal language.
Terminology[redigér | rediger kildetekst]
There is no generally accepted term for this concept. Most treatments of the subject do not include a name for the language under consideration (e.g. Bengtson and Ruhlen[3]). The terms Proto-World and Proto-Human[4] are in occasional use. Merritt Ruhlen used the term Proto-Sapiens.
History of the idea[redigér | rediger kildetekst]
The first serious scientific attempt to establish the reality of monogenesis was that of Alfredo Trombetti, in his book L'unità d'origine del linguaggio, published in 1905.[5][6] Trombetti estimated that the common ancestor of existing languages had been spoken between 100,000 and 200,000 years ago.[7]
Monogenesis was dismissed by many linguists in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when the doctrine of the polygenesis of the human races and their languages was widely popularised.[8]
The best-known supporter of monogenesis in America in the mid-20th century was Morris Swadesh.[5] He pioneered two important methods for investigating deep relationships between languages, lexicostatistics and glottochronology.
In the second half of the 20th century, Joseph Greenberg produced a series of large-scale classifications of the world's languages. These were and are controversial but widely discussed. Although Greenberg did not produce an explicit argument for monogenesis, all of his classification work was geared toward this end. As he stated:[9] "The ultimate goal is a comprehensive classification of what is very likely a single language family."
Notable American advocates of linguistic monogenesis include Merritt Ruhlen, John Bengtson, and Harold Fleming.
Date and location[redigér | rediger kildetekst]
The first concrete attempt to estimate the date of the hypothetical ancestor language was that of Alfredo Trombetti,[7] who concluded it was spoken between 100,000 and 200,000 years ago, or close to the first emergence of Homo sapiens.
It is uncertain or disputed whether the earliest members of Homo sapiens had fully developed language. Some scholars link the emergence of language proper (out of a proto-linguistic stage that may have lasted considerably longer) to the development of behavioral modernity toward the end of the Middle Paleolithic or at the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic, roughly 50,000 years ago. Thus, in the opinion of Richard Klein, the ability to produce complex speech only developed some 50,000 years ago (with the appearance of modern humans or Cro-Magnons). Johanna Nichols (1998)[10] argued that vocal languages must have begun diversifying in our species at least 100,000 years ago.
In 2011, an article in the journal Science proposed an African origin of modern human languages.[11] It was suggested that human language predates the out-of-Africa migrations of 50,000 to 70,000 years ago and that language might have been the essential cultural and cognitive innovation that facilitated human colonization of the globe.[12]
In Perreault and Mathew (2012),[13] an estimate on the time of the first emergence of human language was based on phonemic diversity. This is based on the assumption that phonemic diversity evolves much more slowly than grammar or vocabulary, slowly increasing over time (but reduced among small founding populations). The largest phoneme inventories are found among African languages, while the smallest inventories are found in South America and Oceania, some of the last regions of the globe to be colonized. The authors used data from the colonization of Southeast Asia to estimate the rate of increase in phonemic diversity. Applying this rate to African languages, Perreault and Mathew (2012) arrived at an estimated age of 150,000 to 350,000 years, compatible with the emergence and early dispersal of H. sapiens. The validity of this approach has been criticized as flawed.[14]
Characteristics[redigér | rediger kildetekst]
Speculation on the "characteristics" of Proto-World is limited to linguistic typology, i.e. the identification of universal features shared by all human languages, such as grammar (in the sense of "fixed or preferred sequences of linguistic elements"), and recursion, but beyond this nothing can be known of it.[15]
Christopher Ehret has hypothesized that Proto-Human had a very complex consonant system, including clicks.[16]
A few linguists, such as Merritt Ruhlen, have suggested the application of mass comparison and internal reconstruction (cf. Babaev 2008). A number of linguists have attempted to reconstruct the language, while many others[hvem?] reject this as fringe science.[17]
According to Murray Gell-Mann and Ruhlen (2011),[18] the ancestral language would have had a basic order of Subject (S) - Object (O) - Verb (V) or SOV.
Vocabulary[redigér | rediger kildetekst]
Ruhlen tentatively traces a number of words back to the ancestral language, based on the occurrence of similar sound-and-meaning forms in languages across the globe. Bengtson and Ruhlen identify 27 "global etymologies".[3] The following table lists a selection of these forms:[19]
| Language phylum |
Who? | What? | Two | Water | One / Finger | Arm-1 | Arm-2 | Bend / Knee | Hair | Vulva / Vagina | Smell / Nose |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Khoisan | !kū | ma | /kam | k´´ā | //kɔnu | //kū | ≠hā | //gom | /ʼū | !kwai | č’ū |
| Nilo-Saharan | na | de | ball | nki | tok | kani | boko | kutu | sum | buti | čona |
| Niger–Congo | nani | ni | bala | engi | dike | kono | boko | boŋgo | butu | ||
| Afroasiatic | k(w) | ma | bwVr | ak’wa | tak | ganA | bunqe | somm | put | suna | |
| Kartvelian | min | ma | yor | rts’q’a | ert | t’ot’ | qe | muql | toma | putʼ | sun |
| Dravidian | yāv | yā | iraṇṭu | nīru | birelu | kaŋ | kay | meṇḍa | pūṭa | počču | čuṇṭu |
| Eurasiatic | kwi | mi | pālā | akwā | tik | konV | bhāghu(s) | bük(ä) | punče | p’ut’V | snā |
| Dené–Caucasian | kwi | ma | gnyis | ʔoχwa | tok | kan | boq | pjut | tshām | putʼi | suŋ |
| Austric | o-ko-e | m-anu | ʔ(m)bar | namaw | ntoʔ | xeen | baγa | buku | śyām | betik | iǰuŋ |
| Indo-Pacific | mina | boula | okho | dik | akan | ben | buku | utu | sɨnna | ||
| Australian | ŋaani | minha | bula | gugu | kuman | mala | pajing | buŋku | puda | mura | |
| Amerind | kune | mana | p’āl | akwā | dɨk’i | kano | boko | buka | summe | butie | čuna |
| Source:.[19] The symbol V stands for "a vowel whose precise character is unknown" (ib. 105). | |||||||||||
Based on these correspondences, Ruhlen[19] lists these roots for the ancestor language:
- ku = 'who'
- ma = 'what'
- pal = 'two'
- akwa = 'water'
- tik = 'finger'
- kanV = 'arm'
- boko = 'arm'
- buŋku = 'knee'
- sum = 'hair'
- putV = 'vulva'
- čuna = 'nose, smell'
The full list of Bengtson's and Ruhlen's (1994) 27 "global etymologies" is given below.[3]
No. Root Gloss 1 aja ‘mother, older female relative’ 2 bu(n)ka ‘knee, to bend’ 3 bur ‘ashes, dust’ 4 čun(g)a ‘nose; to smell’ 5 kama ‘hold (in the hand)’ 6 kano ‘arm’ 7 kati ‘bone’ 8 k’olo ‘hole’ 9 kuan ‘dog’ 10 ku(n) ‘who?’ 11 kuna ‘woman’ 12 mako ‘child’ 13 maliq’a ‘to suck(le), nurse; breast’ 14 mana ‘to stay (in a place)’ 15 mano ‘man’ 16 mena ‘to think (about)’ 17 mi(n) ‘what?’ 18 pal ‘two’ 19 par ‘to fly’ 20 poko ‘arm’ 21 puti ‘vulva’ 22 teku ‘leg, foot’ 23 tik ‘finger; one’ 24 tika ‘earth’ 25 tsaku ‘leg, foot’ 26 tsuma ‘hair’ 27 ʔaq’wa ‘water’
Syntax[redigér | rediger kildetekst]
In a 2011 paper, Murray Gell-Mann and Merritt Ruhlen argued that the ancestral language had subject–object–verb (SOV) word order.[20] The reason for thinking so is that in the world's natural language families, it is typical for the original language to have an SOV word order, and languages that evolve from it sometimes deviate. Their proposal develops an earlier one made by Talmy Givón (1979:271–309).Skabelon:How
Languages with SOV word order have a strong tendency to have other word orders in common, such as:[21]
- Adjectives precede the nouns they modify.
- Dependent genitives precede the nouns they modify.
- "Prepositions" are really "postpositions", following the nouns they refer to.
For example, instead of saying (as in English) The man goes to the wide river, Ruhlen's Proto-Human speakers would have said Man wide river to goes. However, half of all current languages have SOV order, and historically languages cycle between word orders, so finding evidence of this order in the reconstructions of many families may reflect no more than this general tendency, rather than reflecting a common ancestral form.
Criticism[redigér | rediger kildetekst]
Many linguists reject the methods used to determine these forms. Several areas of criticism are raised with the methods Ruhlen and Gell-Mann employ. The essential basis of these criticisms is that the words being compared do not show common ancestry; the reasons for this vary. One is onomatopoeia: for example, the suggested root for 'smell' listed above, *čuna, may simply be a result of many languages employing an onomatopoeic word that sounds like sniffing, snuffling, or smelling. Another is the taboo quality of certain words. Lyle Campbell points out that many established proto-languages do not contain an equivalent word for *putV 'vulva' because of how often such taboo words are replaced in the lexicon, and notes that it "strains credibility to imagine" that a proto-World form of such a word would survive in many languages.
Using the criteria that Bengtson and Ruhlen employ to find cognates to their proposed roots, Lyle Campbell finds seven possible matches to their root for woman *kuna in Spanish, including cónyuge 'wife, spouse', chica 'girl', and cana 'old woman (adjective)'. He then goes on to show how what Bengtson and Ruhlen would identify as reflexes of *kuna cannot possibly be related to a proto-World word for woman. Cónyuge, for example, comes from the Latin root meaning 'to join', so its origin had nothing to do with the word 'woman'; chica is related to a Latin word meaning 'insignificant thing'; cana comes from the Latin word for 'white', and again shows a history unrelated to the word 'woman'.[22] Campbell's assertion is that these types of problems are endemic to the methods used by Ruhlen and others.
There are some linguists who question the very possibility of tracing language elements so far back into the past. Campbell notes that given the time elapsed since the origin of human language, every word from that time would have been replaced or changed beyond recognition in all languages today. Campbell harshly criticizes efforts to reconstruct a Proto-human language, saying "the search for global etymologies is at best a hopeless waste of time, at worst an embarrassment to linguistics as a discipline, unfortunately confusing and misleading to those who might look to linguistics for understanding in this area."[23]
See also[redigér | rediger kildetekst]
- Adamic language
- Borean languages
- Linguistic universals
- List of languages by first written accounts
- List of proto-languages
- Origin of language
- Origin of speech
- Polygenesis (linguistics)
- Proto-language
- Recent African origin of modern humans
- Universal grammar
References[redigér | rediger kildetekst]
Notes[redigér | rediger kildetekst]
- ^ Mcwhorter, John (4. september 2020). "How are the Various Proto-World Families Linked?".
The Proto-World language, also known as the Proto-Human or Proto-Sapiens, is believed to be the single source of origin of all the world’s languages.
(engelsk) - ^ "American Sign Language | communications | Britannica".
- ^ a b c Meritt Ruhlen; John Bengtson (1994). "Global etymologies". On the Origin of Languages: Studies in Linguistic Taxonomy (PDF) (engelsk). s. 277-336. Hentet 27 juni 2020.
{{cite book}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link) - ^ Used by the Harold Fleming (2003) and John Bengtson (2007).
- ^ a b Ruhlen, Meritt (1994). The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
- ^ Trombetti, Alfredo (1905). L'unità d'origine del linguaggio (italiensk). Bologna: Luigi Beltrami.
- ^ a b Trombetti, Alfredo (1922-1923). Elementi di glottologia (italiensk). Bologna: Zanichelli.
{{cite book}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato-format (link) - ^ de Saussure, Ferdinand (1986) [1916]. Cours de linguistique générale [Course in General Linguistics] (fransk). Oversat af Harris, Roy. Chicago: Open Court.
- ^ Greenberg, Joseph H. (1987). Language in the Americas. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
- ^ Johanna Nichols, 1998. The origin and dispersal of languages: Linguistic evidence. In Nina Jablonski and Leslie C. Aiello, eds., The Origin and Diversification of Language, pp. 127-70. (Memoirs of the California Academy of Sciences, 24.) San Francisco: California Academy of Sciences.
- ^ Quentin D. Atkinson (15 apr. 2011). "Phonemic Diversity Supports a Serial Founder Effect Model of Language Expansion from Africa". Science. 332 (6027): 346-349. Bibcode:2011Sci...332..346A. doi:10.1126/science.1199295. PMID 21493858. S2CID 42021647.
{{cite journal}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link) - ^ Michael Balter (14 april 2011). "Language May Have Helped Early Humans Spread Out of Africa". Science. Hentet 13 august 2021.
{{cite web}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link) - ^ Perreault, C.; Mathew, S. (2012). "Dating the origin of language using phonemic diversity". PLOS ONE. 7 (4): e35289. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...735289P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0035289. PMC 3338724. PMID 22558135.
- ^ Hunley, Keith; Bowern, Claire; Healy, Meghan (2 januar 2012). "Rejection of a serial founder effects model of genetic and linguistic coevolution". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 279 (1736): 2281-2288. doi:10.1098/rspb.2011.2296. PMC 3321699. PMID 22298843.
{{cite journal}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link)
Bowern, Claire (november 2011). "Out of Africa? The logic of phoneme inventories and founder effects". Linguistic Typology. 15 (2): 207-216. doi:10.1515/lity.2011.015. hdl:1885/28291. ISSN 1613-415X. S2CID 120276963.{{cite journal}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link) - ^ Campbell & Poser (2008:391)
- ^ CARTA: The Origin of Us -- Christopher Ehret: Relationships of Ancient African Languages. august 1, 2013. Arkiveret fra originalen 2021-12-11.
{{cite AV media}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link) - ^ Velasquez-Manoff, Moises (19 juli 2007). "Linguists seek a time when we spoke as one". Christian Science Monitor. Hentet 18 maj 2018.
{{cite journal}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link) - ^ Gell-Mann, Murray; Ruhlen, Merritt (august 26, 2011). "The Origin and Evolution of Word Order". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 108 (42): 17290-5. Bibcode:2011PNAS..10817290G. doi:10.1073/pnas.1113716108. PMC 3198322. PMID 21987807.
{{cite journal}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link) - ^ a b c Ruhlen, Meritt (1994). The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue. New York: John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 9780471159636. Hentet 27 juni 2020.
{{cite book}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link) - ^ Gell-Mann, Murray; Ruhlen, Merritt (2011). "The origin and evolution of word order". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 108 (42): 17290-17295. Bibcode:2011PNAS..10817290G. doi:10.1073/pnas.1113716108. PMC 3198322. PMID 21987807.
- ^ Gell-Mann & Ruhlen (2003:3–4)
- ^ Campbell & Poser (2008:370–372)
- ^ Campbell & Poser (2008:393)
Sources[redigér | rediger kildetekst]
- Bengtson, John D. 2007. "On fossil dinosaurs and fossil words". (Also: HTML version.)
- Campbell, Lyle, and William J. Poser. 2008. Language Classification: History and Method. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Edgar, Blake (marts-april 2008). "Letter from South Africa". Archaeology. 61 (2). Hentet 5 november 2018.
{{cite journal}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato automatisk oversat (link) CS1-vedligeholdelse: Dato-format (link) - Gell-Mann, Murray and Merritt Ruhlen. 2003. "The origin and evolution of syntax" (Webside ikke længere tilgængelig). (Also: HTML version (Webside ikke længere tilgængelig).)
- Givón, Talmy. 1979. On Understanding Grammar. New York: Academic Press.
- Greenberg, Joseph. 1963. "Some universals of grammar with particular reference to the order of meaningful elements". In Universals of Language, edited by Joseph Greenberg, Cambridge: MIT Press, pp. 58–90. (In second edition of Universals of Language, 1966: pp. 73–113.)
- Greenberg, Joseph H. 1966. The Languages of Africa, revised edition. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. (Published simultaneously at The Hague by Mouton & Co.)
- Greenberg, Joseph H. 1971. "The Indo-Pacific hypothesis". Reprinted in Joseph H. Greenberg, Genetic Linguistics: Essays on Theory and Method, edited by William Croft, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
- Greenberg, Joseph H. 2000–2002. Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family. Volume 1: Grammar. Volume 2: Lexicon. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
- Klein, Richard G. and Blake Edgar. 2002. The Dawn of Human Culture. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
- McDougall, Ian; Brown, Francis H.; Fleagle, John G. (2005). "Stratigraphic placement and age of modern humans from Kibish, Ethiopia" (PDF). Nature. 433 (7027): 733-736. Bibcode:2005Natur.433..733M. doi:10.1038/nature03258. PMID 15716951. S2CID 1454595.
- Nandi, Owi Ivar. 2012. Human Language Evolution, as Coframed by Behavioral and Psychological Universalisms, Bloomington: iUniverse Publishers.
- Wells, Spencer. 2007. Deep Ancestry: Inside the Genographic Project. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic.
- White, Tim D.; Asfaw, B.; DeGusta, D.; Gilbert, H.; Richards, G.D.; Suwa, G.; Howell, F.C. (2003). "Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia". Nature. 423 (6941): 742-747. Bibcode:2003Natur.423..742W. doi:10.1038/nature01669. PMID 12802332. S2CID 4432091.
External links[redigér | rediger kildetekst]
- "Genetic Distance and Language Affinities Between Autochthonous Human Populations"
- Babaev, Kirill. 2008. "Critics of the Nostratic theory", in Nostratica: Resources on Distant Language Relationship.
Skabelon:Long-range comparative linguistics
Brug af IPA-udtaleskabeloner[redigér | rediger kildetekst]
Skabelon:IPA-nøgler Wikipedia tilbyder flere skabeloner til korrekt visning af IPA-transkriptioner.
IPA-skrifttypen[redigér | rediger kildetekst]
Generelt bør IPA-symboler på en side være indesluttet i {{IPA}}-skabelonen, som formaterer teksten i en IPA-fremstillende skrifttype. Hvis en væsentlig del af en side bruger IPA, er det skik at informere om dette med {{Indeholder specialtegn|IPA}}, selvom hvert token stadig kræver {{IPA}}-skabelonen for en korrekt formatering.
Hvis der ikke forekommer nok IPA til at begrunde et varsel, bør man overveje en skabelon, der henviser til en IPA-nøgle for den første forekomst af IPA på en side ller et afsnit.
Danske ord[redigér | rediger kildetekst]
Til danske ord, i en bred, ikke-regional transskription, som i når man skal vise udtalen af et nøgleord i en artikel, skal man bruge {{IPAc-da}}, som henviser til Hjælp:IPA/dansk, et diagram over den delmængde af IPA'en, der er relevant for dansk, og automatiserer konverteringen til IPA, så {{IPAc-da|'|w|3:r|d}} vises som Skabelon:IPAc-da. Dette giver muse-over-links til symbolerne og er nu den foretrukne skabelon.
For en specifik transskription i en regional variant, skal der benyttes {{IPA-dadia}} eller {{IPA-alle}}.
Ord, der ikke er danske[redigér | rediger kildetekst]
Til ord, der ikke er assimileret på dansk, regionale udtaler af danske ord og ikke-standardiserede danske dialekter, skal man bruge skabeloner, der henviser til det mere generelle Hjælp:IPA-diagram, der indeholder alle større IPA-symboler:
- {{IPA-alle}}, vises som: Skabelon:IPA-alle. Eller:
- Til bestemte sprog kan der eksistere dedikerede IPA-nøgler til standardiseret transskription. Der er flere muligheder for deres visning. Den første celle indeholder sprogets ISO-kode. Den anden er transskriptionen. Den tredje nøgle er en indledende sætning. Og den fjerde er til en lydfil. Ved at bruge det franske ord eau [o] som eksempel, har vi standardformatet:
{{IPA-fr|o}}→ fransk udtale: [o]
- Eller ordet "udtales" kan bruges som introduktion:
{{IPA-fr|o|pron}}→ udtales: [o]
- Kun sprognavn:
{{IPA-fr|o|lang}}→ fransk: [o]
- Kun "IPA":
{{IPA-fr|o|IPA}}→ IPA: [o]
- Kun link:
{{IPA-fr|o|}}→ [o]
- Enhver af disse kan saæætes sammen med en lydfil:
{{IPA-fr|o|lang|Fr-eau.ogg}}→ {{IPA-fr|o|lang|Fr-eau.ogg} }
- For standardintroduktionssætningen kræves der dog en placeholder som "-":
{{IPA-fr|o|-|Fr-eau.ogg}}→ {{IPA-fr|o|-|Fr-eau.ogg} }
Understøttede sprog og skabeloner[redigér | rediger kildetekst]
Languages without dedicated keys[redigér | rediger kildetekst]
Templates have been created for languages which do not yet have dedicated key pages. Transcriptions which use these templates will link to Hjælp:IPA for the time being; when a language-specific key is created the templates will be linked accordingly. For example, you can use {{IPA-jv|word}} for Javanese, but for the moment it will link to Hjælp:IPA, producing Skabelon:IPA-jv.
Languages and language extensions (IPA-xx) with links to Hjælp:IPA
|
|---|
|
Conversion to IPA[redigér | rediger kildetekst]
The template {{x2i}} takes X-SAMPA symbols (ASCII equivalents of IPA symbols) and converts them to IPA.
Other language-specific templates allow you to enter ordinary letters (or conventional ASCII equivalents) in place of IPA characters, and they will be automatically converted to the phonetic symbols that are used to transcribe the language. The templates that are currently available are shown below, with examples:
| Sprog | SkabelonR | Code example | Result |
|---|---|---|---|
| Arabisk | Skabelon:Tldep | {{IPAc-ar|2|a|l|l|u|gh|a|t_|a|l|3|a|r|a|b|i|y|y|a}}
|
Skabelon:IPAc-ar |
| Cantonese | Skabelon:Tldep | {{IPAc-yue|h|ung|2|.|z|i|2}}
|
Skabelon:IPAc-yue |
| English | Skabelon:Tldep | {{IPAc-en|,|{|l|@|'|b|{|m|@}}
|
Skriptfejl: Intet modul med navnet "IPAc-en". |
| French | Skabelon:Tldep | {{IPAc-fr|j|@|-|s|U|i|s_|a|m|é|r|i|c|ain}}
|
Skabelon:IPAc-fr |
| Georgian | Skabelon:Tldep | {{IPAc-ka|dz|a|l|a|_|e|r|t|o|b|a|sh|i|a}}
|
Skabelon:IPAc-ka |
| Hebrew | Skabelon:Tldep | {{IPAc-he|y|a|ʿ|a|k|o|v}}
|
Skabelon:IPAc-he |
| Hungarian | Skabelon:Tldep | {{IPAc-hu|'|m|a|gy|a|r}}
|
Skabelon:IPAc-hu |
| Irish | Skabelon:Tldep | {{IPAc-ga|'|b|ai|l'|@|-|'|á|th|@|-|'|c'|l'|ia|th}}
|
Skabelon:IPAc-ga |
| Italian | Skabelon:Tldep | {{IPAc-it|'|i|:|o|_|'|s|o|:|n|o|_|a|m|e|r|i|'|c|a|:|n|o}}
|
Skabelon:IPAc-it |
| Japanese | Skabelon:Tldep | {{IPAc-ja|ku|ro|si|o}}
|
Skabelon:IPAc-ja |
| Korean | Skabelon:Tldep | {{IPAc-ko|h|a|ng|eo}}
|
Skabelon:IPAc-ko |
| Mandarin | Skabelon:Tldep | {{IPAc-cmn|zh|ong|1|h|ua|2|-|r|en|2|m|in|2|-|g|ong|4|h|e|2|g|uo|2}}
|
Skabelon:IPAc-cmn |
| Māori | Skabelon:Tldep | {{IPAc-mi|ng|ā|r|u|a|'|w|ā|h|i|a}}
|
Skabelon:IPAc-mi |
| Marshallese | Skabelon:Tldep | {{IPAc2-mh|mhahjelh}}
|
Skabelon:IPAc2-mh |
| Polish | Skabelon:Tldep | {{IPAc-pl|'|sz|cz|e|ć|i|n}}
|
Skabelon:IPAc-pl |
| Portuguese | Skabelon:Tldep | {{IPAc-pt|p|o|<|r|t|u|'|g|a|l|lang=pt}} and {{IPAc-pt|b|r|a|'|S|i|l|lang=br}}
|
Skabelon:IPAc-pt and Skabelon:IPAc-pt |
| Romanian | Skabelon:Tldep | {{IPAc-ro|ˈ|m|U|n|ț|ii|_|f|ă|G|ă|ˈ|r|a|ș|U|l|U|i}}
|
[ˈmunsiː fəɡəˈraʃuluj] |
| Spanish | Skabelon:Tldep | {{IPAc-es|m|i|'|gu|e|l|_|d|e|_|c|e|r|'|v|a|n|t|e|s|_|s|aa|'|v|e|d|r|a}}
|
Skabelon:IPAc-es |
The following templates have also been created, but they haven't been vetted by the community and may not work properly:
- Skabelon:Tldep: Old English
- Skabelon:Tldep: German
- Skabelon:Tldep: Icelandic
- Skabelon:Tldep: Latin
- Skabelon:Tldep: Dutch
- Skabelon:Tldep: Ukrainian
See also[redigér | rediger kildetekst]
- {{Respell}}, for pronunciation respellings, which may be used for English words in addition to the IPA
- {{IPA-nci}}, for dual Nahuatl-IPA transcription